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APLC Environmental research and monitoring
Introduction
Drivers for improving environmental performance
Invertebrates
Vertebrates
Rare and threatened fauna
Environmental Management System
Passive water sampling devices
Further reading
Introduction
The Australian Plague Locust Commission is committed to targeted and responsible scientific research into the effects of locust control operations on the environment. The over-arching objective of the APLC's Environmental Program is to quantify and minimise, where necessary, environmental impacts resulting from APLC locust monitoring and control operations. The Commission ensures that its operations fully comply with all relevant State and Commonwealth environmental legislation and has adopted the Commonwealth Government's Annual Voluntary Public Environmental Reporting initiative.
To achieve its environmental policy objectives the APLC has an active environmental research program. Currently the program comprises the following four core research projects:
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Research into the impacts of locust control agents on Australian native fauna
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Research quantifying the impacts of fenitrothion and fipronil on invertebrate populations
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Implementation of an Environmental Management System for locust control in Australia, and
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Development and field assessment of passive sampling devices (PSDs) to monitor chemical deposition in air and water during locust control operations.
Collaborative research involving the University of Wollongong, Texas Tech University (USA), Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales Department of Environment and Climate Change and the National Research Center for Environmental Toxicology, with funding from organisations such as the Australian Research Council, ensures that environmental research undertaken by the APLC is objective and open to scrutiny. Research outcomes are published in peer reviewed scientific journals.
Drivers for improving environmental performance
Increasingly, environmental legislation in Australia is focussing on the need for proponents of threatening actions to demonstrate that they have due diligence processes in place for actions that could potentially impact on matters of importance from a conservation perspective. This increase in environmental duty of care is evident in both State and Federal legislation affecting the APLC.
The APLC’s operations are governed at a number of levels. At the Commonwealth level, the primary piece of environmental legislation governing locust control is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC). The EPBC Act was passed by the Commonwealth Government in August 1999, and replaces the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975, the Whale Protection Act 1980, the World Heritage (Properties Conservation) Act 1983, the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, and the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974. The Act came into force on 1 July 2000.
The APLC referred its locust control activities to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA) for assessment under the Act in May 2001. DEH found that pursuant with the Environmental Reform (Consequential Provisions) Act 1999, Part 3 of the EPBC Act would not apply to the APLC’s locust control activities. That is to say that controlling plague locusts would not require the Environment Minister's approval. However a substantial change in the way in which locust control is undertaken will require this issue to be revisited as indicated in ss523(2) of the Act.
At the State level, legislation such as Queensland's Environment Protection Act 1994 states clearly that everyone has a "general environmental duty to take all reasonable and practicable measures to prevent or minimise environmental harm". Environmental harm has been defined in the Act as any adverse effect (whether temporary or permanent and of whatever magnitude, duration or frequency) on an environmental value. An environmental value is defined as "a quality or physical characteristic of the environment that is conducive to ecological health or public amenity or safety". Therefore an increasing level of due diligence is being incorporated into environmental legislation at this level.
At the corporate level, the issue of due diligence and/or a duty of care for the environment is increasingly prominent. Mere compliance with environmental legislation is no longer sufficient for environmentally responsible locust control and the APLC is striving to achieve appropriate environmental, social and economic goals, maintaining the so-called "triple bottom line". The development of an Environmental Management System (EMS) is a critical tool for the APLC enabling it to achieve its environmental goals
Invertebrates
The effects of fenitrothion on non-target invertebrates has been studied by the APLC. Between 1990 and 1993 field trials were conducted to assess the impact of fenitrothion ULV, applied aerially at the rate of 381 g ai/ha, on the epigeal invertebrate fauna of arid grasslands in Australia. Invertebrate populations were monitored with pitfall traps for up to 15 months after treatment. Over 331,000 arthropods were caught in the traps during the life of the study. The Collembola (springtails) constituted the most numerous and most sensitive invertebrate group but Coleoptera (beetles) and Heteroptera (true bugs) were also trapped in numbers to permit sufficient meaningful conclusions. Ants (Formicidae) were also caught in high numbers but variability in trap captures made analysis difficult.
A significant reduction in the total number of arthropods caught was detected at most sites immediately after spraying but most of the fauna had fully recovered 28 days post-treatment. Longer-term effects on the abundance of Collembola were seen on a small number of occasions but no difference in community structure was detected. It was concluded that the application of 381 g ai fenitrothion/ha would only have a short-term effect on the epigeal invertebrate fauna of arid grasslands of eastern Australia. The dose of fenitrothion now used by the APLC for most of its control of C. terminifera is 267 g ai/ha and this would further reduce any adverse impact on grassland invertebrates.
The impact of fipronil applied aerially at a rate of 1.25 g ai/ha is currently being compared with an area sprayed with fenitrothion (at a rate of 267 g ai/ha) and an unsprayed (control) area. Invertebrate populations are being assessed using pitfall traps, yellow pan traps and malaise traps. Additional sampling, in this and other areas treated with fipronil, is being conducted to determine the effect of this insecticide on termites. The health of termite colonies oversprayed by fipronil is being monitored and the activity of subterranean species infesting cattle dung and baits of wood or paper is also being followed. Analysis of the results is still in progress. Further trials to cover a variety of habitats where the APLC operates will be conducted when suitable locust infestations arise.
Vertebrates
Current research focuses on the effect of chemical locust control on native vertebrate fauna with an emphasis on sublethal impacts. Collaboration with Wollongong University and Texas Tech University and recent funding by the Australian Research Council has enabled this research to be extended and includes:
Above: A Dunnart caught in a pitfall trap in western Queensland -
animals are released unharmed after recording their sex, weight, reproductive status and taking a blood sample for ChE analysis.
- characterising cholinesterase (ChE) baselines for a range of vertebrate taxa
- monitoring ChE activities within these taxa before and after locust control operations
- investigating potential biomarkers for fipronil contamination within non-target vertebrates, and
- investigating sublethal effects of fenitrothion and fipronil on physiological and behavioural characteristics for a range of Australian native vertebrates.
The proposed research is the first physiologically based evaluation of OP pesticide effects on birds (eg Australian Kestrel, Falco cenchriodes pictured), mammals (eg stripe-faced dunnart Sminthopsis macroura pictured) and reptiles evolved in and adapted to Australian habitats. This knowledge will have profound impacts on how environmental toxicants are evaluated, tested and used in this country. Furthermore, our use and development of a panel of physiological and behavioural measures to examine sublethal effects of pesticides are pertinent to agencies and governments beyond Australia. For example, the combined use of endocrine, immune, and metabolic evaluations are much more likely to provide an accurate assessment of health and ability to survive and reproduce under field conditions than measurements of plasma cholinesterase alone.
In the short term, the APLC will use these methods to integrate environmental research into the organisations environmental management system and assess the relative environmental performance of its chemical control agents. In the future the framework established by this research will be used to assess any future locust control agents.
Additionally, our development of functionally based pesticide evaluation procedures will help protect Australia’s unique biodiversity, an invaluable benefit. We expect this research to extend beyond examining the specific pesticides targeted in this proposal, particularly in the area of avian sensitivity to pesticides generally.
Rare and Threatened Fauna
Above: Many species of birds, such as this Australian Kestrel (Falco enchriodes)
are opportunistic feeders on locusts nymphs and adults.
The success of the APLC's biocontrol agent, Metarhizium anisopliae has been a quantum leap forward for locust control operations in or adjacent to ecologically sensitive areas. The APLC now uses this fungus to control locust populations in areas accurately identified and mapped as preferred habitat of rare, endangered or vulnerable species in addition to areas in the vicinity of organic farming enterprises. The APLC is currently negotiating with relevant National parks and Wildlife Services and/or organic industry representatives and continuing to collect and collate location data critical for the responsible use of M anisopliae.
An Environmental Management System for locust control
The APLC has developed an EMS for locust control. An EMS is a management tool designed to help an organisation to identify environmental risks and improve their environmental performance. It consists of a number of major processes that can be broken down into a series of procedures (see Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts).
The Planning phase consists of identifying the scope of the organisation's operations, its major environmental impacts and developing a set of objectives, based on the overall environmental policy.
The implementation and operation phase puts in place a set of procedures for the achievement of the identified targets. These procedures include communicating and documenting the requirements of the EMS and training staff to identify and met these requirements.
The checking and correction phase monitors the success of the EMS and implements corrective measures where protocols are not being followed or the system is in some way deficient as implemented.
Finally, the management review phase reviews the EMS and the degree of achievement of the goals that were created in the context of the environmental policy. This stage may involve a review of the environmental policy and its appropriateness in the light of the evolving nature of the organisation and the change in environmental obligations and expectations.
An EMS is a process of continual review and improvement. The Environmental Policy, Procedures Manual and Procedures Registers are the key EMS documents and are available below, along with a guide to the EMS.
- Environmental Management System Guide
PDF [302kb] - APLC Environmental Policy PDF [36kb]
- EMS Procedures Manual PDF [357kb]
- EMS Registers PDF [96kb]
Passive water sampling devices for use during locust control
The APLC currently employs down wind buffer zones of 1500 m during its operational application of the organophosphorus insecticide, fenitrothion and the phenyl-pyrazole, fipronil during any locust control.
However, the APLC is under increasing constraints while attempting to undertake locust control throughout its area of responsibility. An increasing proportion of organic production in regional areas and an increasing awareness of the status and location of species and ecosystems with rare, threatened and/or vulnerable conservation status, has meant that these generous buffer zones are currently inhibiting the APLC from successfully fulfilling its charter.
Monitoring of water quality is a key task for managers of environmental and public health. Usually methods that are used for water quality monitoring are based on a sampling regime that uses individual samples representative only of the relatively short time when the sample is collected. For many organic chemicals the analytical methods in combination with relatively small sample volumes (1 L) are often not adequate to obtain analytical results which allow the assessment of whether the chemicals pose a risk to the environment or human health.
The problems associated with sampling strategies and method sensitivity has resulted in many attempts to develop alternative monitoring methods. These include sampling and analysis of sediment or biota.
Unfortunately prediction of water concentration from such methods is complicated by a myriad of factors related to the complexity of the natural abiotic and biotic environment (ie composition, mobility, metabolism and many others).
In recognition of these problems systematic attempts have been made in the last decade to develop passive sampling systems that accumulate chemicals and from which the exposure concentrations can be calculated.
Passive samplers are usually designed either as "Kinetic Samplers" or as "Equilibrium Samplers". The most widely used samplers are the Kinetic Samplers that rely on a large "water to sampler partitioning coefficient" where the concentration of the chemical is not approaching an equilibrium state during sampler exposure.
The models used to calculate the chemical concentration in the water are based on the assumption that uptake is linear related to the exposure concentration throughout the exposure (ie no effect of the clearance kinetics) and sorption of chemicals to the sampling phase is the result of reversible diffusive partitioning.
The equilibrium samplers are an alternative to the kinetic samplers. Small partition coefficients and large surface/volume ratios all favour equilibrium characteristic.
A high density polyethylene type sampler can provide an important tool for monitoring chemicals with medium lipophilic characteristics which include a range of past and presently used insecticides such as fipronil and fenitrothion.
The APLC is currently working with the National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology to develop passive samplers to detect fenitrothion and fipronil after ultra low volume application of these pesticides during locust control events.
Further reading and related links
Australian Industry Group (2001). Proceedings of the Australian Industry Groups Third National Environment Conference, May 2001. Australian Industry Group, Environment Australia and the New South Wales Waste Boards.
Bain, D., WA Buttemer, LB Astheimer, KJ Fildes & MJ Hooper. 2004. Effects of fenitrothion ingestion on cholinesterase inhibition, standard metabolism, thermal preference and pre-capture ability in the Australian central bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps . Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23(1):109-116.
Buttemer, W.A., K. Fildes, and L.B. Astheimer 2002. Peak metabolic rate: A performance-based indicator of pesticide exposure in birds. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Buttemer,W.A., Story, P., Fildes, K., Astheimer, L. 2003. Fenitrothion affects exercise but not aerobic capacity in the fat-tailed dunnart , Sminthopsis crassicaudata . Proceedings of the ASE/SETAC Asia-Pacific Conference September 2003 Christchurch NZ.
Carruthers, G. F., Hooper, G. H. S and Walker, P. W. 1993. Impact of fenitrothion on the relative abundance of and diversity of non-target organisms. In Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture (Eds S. Corey, D Dall and W. Milne) pp 136-9.
Fildes, K., D. Bain,J. Szabo, P. Story, MJ Hooper,W.A. Buttemer, and LB Astheimer 2002. Fenitrothion exposure and effects in native arid zone Australian bird species during locust control. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Salt Lake City, Utah.
International Standards Organisation website
Story, P., Astheimer, L ., Buttemer, W.A., Hooper, M.J., Fildes,K., & Szabo, J. 2003.Walking the talk. Why mere legislative compliance is no longer enough for environmentally responsible locust control. Proceedings of the ASE/SETAC Asia-Pacific Conference September 2003 Christchurch NZ.
Story, P. G. and Cox, M. (2001). Review of the effects of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides on vertebrates. Are there implications for locust management in Australia? Wildlife Research 28(2): 179-193. (Abstract)
Story, P. G., Hamilton, J. G, McRae, H., Astheimer, L., Fildes, K., Walker, P., Spurgin, P. and Hunter, D. 2002. Environmental issues facing aerial locust control in Australia. A case study of the Australian Plague Locust Commission. Proceedings of the Fenner Environment Conference (July 2002). Australian Academy of Science.
Story, P. G., Hunter, D. and Walker, P. 2002. Environmental Issues Facing The Australian Plague Locust Commission. Briefing Paper For The Lake Eyre Basin Ministerial Forum’s Scientific Advisory Panel.
Szabo, J., Astheimer, L. B., Story, P. G. and Buttemer, W. A. 2003. Birds, locusts and pesticides: managing an ephemeral feast. Managing an Ephemeral Feast: The Risks of Locust Control Pesticides to Australian Birds. Wingspan 13(3) September: 10-15.
Szabo, J., Astheimer,L. , Story, P., Hooper M.J. & Buttemer,W.A. 2003. Avian-locust interactions in Australian grasslands: implications for risk to pesticide exposure. Proceedings of the ASE/SETAC Asia-Pacific Conference September 2003 Christchurch NZ.